ENDOCRINE-DISRUPTING CHEMICALS AND REPRODUCTIVE TOXICITY: MOLECULAR MECHANISMS, ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE, AND EMERGING EVIDENCE FROM ISOBUTYL PARABEN AND PHENYLMERCURIC ACETATE

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Published: Aug 29, 2026
DOI: https://doi.org/10.69980/as.v12i03.6798
Keywords:
Endocrine-disrupting chemicals, reproductive toxicity, endocrine disruption, isobutyl paraben, phenylmercuric acetate, oxidative stress, steroidogenesis, reproductive health, environmental exposure, endocrine signaling

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Neelakanth S. Wali
Department of Zoology, M.S.I. Degree College, Kalaburagi-585102, Karnataka, India.
Vishwajit B Darekar
Department of P.G. Studies and Research in Zoology, Sharnbasva University, Kalaburagi- 585103, Karnataka, India.

Abstract

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) represent a diverse group of natural and synthetic substances capable of interfering with endocrine signaling and consequently affecting reproduction, development, metabolism, immunity and other physiological processes. Increasing evidence indicates that exposure to EDCs may occur through food, water, air, consumer products, occupational environments and contaminated ecosystems, with particular concern regarding exposure during sensitive developmental periods. This review summarizes the current understanding of the mechanisms, environmental exposure and reproductive consequences of EDCs, with particular emphasis on isobutyl paraben (IBP) and phenylmercuric acetate (PMA). EDCs can interfere with hormone synthesis, secretion, transport, metabolism and receptor-mediated signaling, thereby altering hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal and other endocrine pathways. The review further examines the environmental occurrence, physicochemical characteristics, exposure routes and toxicological properties of IBP, a paraben preservative widely associated with personal-care and pharmaceutical products. Available evidence indicates that parabens may exert estrogenic and antiandrogenic activities and may interfere with steroid-metabolizing enzymes, reproductive development and gametogenesis. The review also evaluates PMA, an organomercury compound, with emphasis on oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, apoptosis, endocrine dysregulation, steroidogenesis and reproductive tissue injury. Experimental evidence indicates that mercury-related oxidative damage may contribute to impaired sperm quality, altered reproductive hormone profiles and histopathological changes in reproductive organs. The review highlights important knowledge gaps, including low-dose and chronic exposure, mixture effects, species-specific responses, developmental and transgenerational consequences, and limited human epidemiological evidence for some individual chemicals. Emerging approaches involving biomonitoring, omics technologies, computational toxicology, human-relevant in vitro models and artificial intelligence may improve the identification and characterization of EDCs. An integrated One Health approach combining human, animal and environmental perspectives is essential for improved risk assessment, exposure reduction and development of safer chemical alternatives.


 

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How to Cite
Neelakanth S. Wali, & Vishwajit B Darekar. (2026). ENDOCRINE-DISRUPTING CHEMICALS AND REPRODUCTIVE TOXICITY: MOLECULAR MECHANISMS, ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE, AND EMERGING EVIDENCE FROM ISOBUTYL PARABEN AND PHENYLMERCURIC ACETATE. IJRDO-Journal of Applied Science, 12(03), 117-138. https://doi.org/10.69980/as.v12i03.6798
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Vol. 12 No. 03 (2026): IJRDO -Journal of Applied Science (In- Press) (ISSN: 2455-6653)
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